воскресенье, 27 мая 2018 г.

A VISION





A VISION


M. GLIKMAN, ISRAEL               
                                                                                      4.09.2017


   The Almighty often directs our thoughts back to the distant or not so distant past. The event described below occurred four months ago. 
   A Saturday evening in Ashdod visiting friends. Usually it would be a ceremonial reception with quite a few guests. But this time there were just us (my wife and I) and an old friend of our hospitable hosts – an artist Vladimir Pain.
   As usually happens when we meet, the conversation turned to my research on the stones of the breastplate of the High Priest. We discussed the topic of the stones being inside the hoshen and the glowing letters. This was all new to Vladimir, he neither read any of my articles nor did he know much about the breastplate.  He listened with interest to my “popular science” narrative. When I said that it was still not completely clear in which way the names of the tribes (sons and grandsons of the forefather Jacob) had been placed on the stone, he replied: “Wait a second, I’ll try to solve this problem now.” I looked at him skeptically and thought to myself that since we already had a few drinks there is no use to argue with the man, otherwise he might take offense. 
   Meanwhile Vladimir set about his “sacred ritual”. He covered his eyes with the left hand, stretched his right hand in front of him slightly spreading the fingers and started moving the hand from left to right while murmuring something to himself. Unfortunately, I did not time him. When the artist “returned to us”, he said: “Ok, it was like this: the stones served as kind of “a container” for the letters. Remember your first grade in school, there was always a container with letters hanging by the blackboard and each letter had its own slot. A teacher would pick the letters necessary to make up a word. The students also had such containers on their desks… When the High Priest received an answer from the Almighty, the letters carved in the stones stood out and formed the words of the answer. That’s what I just saw.”  
    I had a very strange feeling. I thought about the story of King Shaul, especially its end after he consulted the fortune-teller. I thanked Vladimir and changed the subject of the conversation. During the following months I have not thought about the encounter at all. 
     And yet, the information sank in somewhere in the back of my mind and even came back to the surface albeit in a different reinterpreted form.
   THE NAMES OF THE TRIBES OF ISRAEL HAD BEEN PLACED ON THE BREASTPLATE OF THE HIGH PRIEST IN THE ALPHABETICAL ORDER from right to left on the stones attached to the inner surface of the outer fold of the hoshen fabric in the following way:

Gad                Benyamin (Benjamin)               Asher                Ephraim
אפרים                אשר                          בנימין                              גד       

Issachar            Yehuda (Judah)                        Zevulun (Zebulun)            Dan
דן                               זבולן                                        יהודה                     יששכר

Shimon (Simeon)            Reuven (Reuben)                   Naphtali          Menashe
מנשה              נפתלי                                   ראובן                                שמעון       

      Note. In Hebrew the name Ephraim begins with “alef”, the first letter of the alphabet.  The names are written in English transliteration but from right to left. The stones are arranged in columns, the first stone in the upper right corner is odem, in the upper left corner is yashpe.   
    Perhaps, the method of teaching children the Russian language using the containers with letters goes back to the ancient times of the Exodus. The Russian alphabet has roots in Greek, which, in turn, is related to the Phoenician letters and Hebrew.  
     I decided to invite Vladimir to become my co-author and to believe in his assumption, treating it as “the vision” for our own entertainment. Upon hearing my suggestion (over the phone) he replied very seriously: “Prepare the questions. I’ll do some more snooping if I get an access to the information field.”   
   However, the story unexpectedly took a “mythical” turn. It would seem that it was somehow influenced by the  information about the Torah codes. I simply wrote down all the first letters of the names of the tribes in a columnar form:
     א   א    ב   ג    
     ד    ז    י   י      
    מ   נ   ר   ש                         
Reading the Hebrew columns, I got quite an intelligible sentence:   
      אדם   א  זנב    ירגיש            (adam a(alef) zanav irgish) that could be translated as follows: “man will feel “a” a tail”. The letter “alef: might mean the first letter of the name of the Creator “Adonai Elohim -  אלוחים אדוני". Then the text acquires a special meaning: a man is the creation of the Creator and must follow Him.  
    I decided to check, what if the above-mentioned sentence has already been featured in religious literature in one form or another and launched a search on the Internet for the sentence in Hebrew. To my surprise, the search proofed successful.  
    In the Torah, the book of Devarim 28:13 it is written: “And the Lord will make you the head and not the tail; you shall be above only, and not be beneath, if you heed the commandments of the Lord your God, which I command you today, and are careful to observe them.” And should the Israelites not heed the commandments then: “The alien who is among you shall rise higher and higher above you… he shall be the head, and you shall be the tail.” (ibid, 28:43-44)
    In the book of the Prophet Isaiah 9:14-15 we read the following: “Therefore, the Lord will cut off head and tail from Israel …  The elder and honorable, he is the head; The prophet who teaches lies, he is the tail.”
    On a website dedicated to the Mishnah Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers) ( משנה בפרקי  אבות  - פ"ד מט"ו ), there was a discussion dealing with the teaching by Rabbi Matya ben Charash that one should always greet others first and that it is better to be the tail of a lion than the head of a fox.
"רבי מתיא בן חרש אומר : הוי  מקדים בשלום כל אדם , והוי  זנב  לאריות  ואל תהי ראש  לשועלים"
The discussion was concluded with the following sentence:
  .", והזנב ירגיש כי הוא זנב של הראש  ויחד יפעלו הראש יזקור כי  יש מאחוריו  זנב  …"
Literally: the head will remember that there is a tail behind it, while the tail will feel that it is the tail of the head and they will act together. The greatest success is in the union between a man and G-d.
  
   Was it a coincidence or a confirmation, albeit indirect, that the correct placement of the names of the tribes on the hoshen stones has been discovered? I believe that once again I received a gift from Heaven.  A small crack opened up slightly and allowed us to read the most ancient remainder to men: NEVERE FORGET THAT THE ALMIGHTY IS THE HEAD OF EVERYTHING.  
   Thanks to Y. Klingman for sound advice while discussing the article.  

воскресенье, 10 сентября 2017 г.

ADMONITION TO BEZALEL: “AND YOU SHOULD PUT SETTINGS OF STONES IN IT” (EXODUS 28:17)

M.L. GLIKMAN,  ISRAEL
                                                                                                        09.04.2017



                                                      

        The years are going by, forming centuries that, in turn, become millennia. However, the mineralogical meaning of the stones on the breastplate-hoshen of the High Priest remains a mystery. Every year new names are added to the list of researchers in this field but the problem remains unsolved. Before reviewing their work, we would like to emphasize that there is no mention of any kind of “precious stones” – “even chen, even yakara or even tova” in the Torah (the Pentateuch).  Many of the names of the hoshen stones are only mentioned two or three times in the Tanach, while the commentators continue regarding hoshen as an adornment on the chest of the High Priest and “decorate” it with more and more precious stones. We believe that even though the object was made out of gold and stones, it had never served as an adornment, neither when it was created, nor during the days of the Divine Presence in the Tabernacle and later in the Temple. Hoshen was an integral part of the device of direct communication with the Сreator. 
     
And now to the latest publications:

    Zohar Amar, a professor at the Bar Ilan University (Ramat Gan, Israel) wrote in his article "זיהוי אבני החושן" (2016) that it is not important which stones were on the First Temple’s hoshen, what matters is which stones will be on the Third Temple’s hoshen: odem – sardius; pitdah – peridot; bareket – garnet, spinel; nofech – emerald; sapir – sapphire, yahalom – green diamond; leshem – yellow zirconium; shevo – gagate, black diamond; achlama – onyx; tarshish – topaz; shoham – aquamarine; yashfe – opal or labradorite.

   The Temple Institute (Machon haMigdash, Jerusalem, Israel) have also presented their vision of the issue: odem – red chalcedony; pitdah – green topaz; bareket – green emerald; nofech – kallaite; sapir – blue corundum, sapphire or garnet; yahalom – rough diamond or quartz; leshem – yellow or red zirconium; shevo – black and white agate; achlama – amethyst; tarshish – aquamarine; shoham – beryl or onyx; yashfe – jasper. 

    Such “rare” diversity of opinions.
   
    While pondering upon all the information obtained during the years of our research, we suddenly realized that except Bezalel (the actual “manufacturer” of the hoshen) and the High Priest, nobody had seen the stones, as they were hidden from the human eyes inside the hoshen between its front and back (directly adjacent to the chest of the Cohen) parts.

     It became clear that we needed to find evidence to support our assumption, the hard evidence. It seems absurd that the High Priest had to work hard when reading an answer from the Сreator to his own question regarding the future of a particular tribe of the whole people.  The shining letters should have been right in front of his eyes. And this could only have been possible if the stones were placed inside and not outside the hoshen and fixed on the inner surface of its front part. Let’s remember that the hoshen was a woven doubly folded fabric, square in shape, which was attached to the chest of the High Priest. By unfolding (laying out) the hoshen (with the internal placement of the stones) by 180 degrees, we would get the effect of the “upside down” letters on the stones (we initially used this terminology in the article “Restoring the breastplate-hoshen of the High Priest”). When we bring back the parts of hoshen to the 90 degrees position, the answer from Heaven becomes easily readable by the High Priest from right to left. The first stone “odem” would be located to the right of the High Priest, while the last stone “yashfe”  would be to the left. The High Priest would open the hoshen upon receiving the answer and close it back at the end of the “communication session”.

    Should our reasoning be correct, the stones were located INSIDE the hoshen mounted on golden settings attached to the inner surface of its front part.

      But what about the numerous drawings and paintings found in books and on the Internet depicting the High Priest with the hoshen on his chest and the twelve stones on its outer surface? Is it just a pictorial demonstration (by way of illustration) or a mistake that goes back centuries? And what about the Jerusalem Temple Institute research and hoshen reconstruction with the stones on the outer surface, which has been publicly displayed at a museum? Perhaps, the outer placement of the stones warranted RASHI and other commentators to believe that the twelve stones in golden settings served as embellishments on the High Priest’s garments. Has anyone else ever suggested such a hidden placement of the hoshen stones and would we be able to find any evidence in the text of the Torah?  

    We started searching for answers in the available to us literature. It turned out that Abraham ibn Ezra (1089-1164) was the first one to come up with the idea that the stones had been placed inside of the hoshen. In his commentary to the chapter 25 of the Book of Shemot (Exodus) he mentions Josef from Babylon who said that the hoshen was folded in two and the stones were placed in the middle. RAMBAM (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, 1135-1204) wrote that the letters on the hoshen glowed before the High Priest’s face and that the twelve stones were the Urim ve Thummim
(הלכות כלי המקדש , פרק י,יא). While Rashi (Rabbeinu Shlomo Yitzchaki, 1040-1105) wrote that Urim ve Thummim were the names of the Сreator. Then the whole subject of “the stones inside the hoshen” had been forgotten until 2006 when Rav Avigdor Elbom wrote a small pamphlet “Antithesis to the Hosen Stones”. Based on the commentaries of the Torah sages he tried to come to an unambiguous conclusion: “The hoshen stones were placed inside the hoshen between its folds. Thus, the High Priest would open the hoshen in the question-answer process". His son, Rav Yosef Yehiel Elbom, published an article “The Hoshen Stones Were Placed Inside” (2007), in which he defended his fathers’ conclusions. Both works were sharply criticized by Rav Azariah Ariel (2014). His conclusion sounded like a verdict: “There is no evidence to support the idea that the stones were inside the folds (“pockets”) of the hoshen. And nobody has ever believed in that other than an obscure sage from the ibn Ezra’s commentary”. To strengthen his position, he cited the words of RAMBAN (Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman, 1195-1270) that the stones are not what was used to fill a vessel. Back in 1981 the Torah commentator A.S. Hartom expressed the currently prevailing opinion in his commentaries to the Book Shemot: “It is self-evident that the stones were placed on the outer surface of the hoshen” (page 104).  

   All the above-mentioned contemporary publications were based on the analysis of various statements by certain Torah commentators and the information gleaned from the Babylonian Talmud (Tractate Yoma) without a detailed analysis of the technology and the process of the making of the hoshen outlined in the Torah. We decided to go back to the Torah and study once again, what it has to say about the hoshen and the twelve stones. While working with the Torah translations into Russian we encountered the tendency to replace the literal meanings of Hebrew words with set phrases and literary embellishments that to some degree distort the original meaning of the text. For the Russian translations of the Torah and Rashi commentaries we have used the internet site:   http://www.ejwiki-bible.org/wiki .

   Some of the chapters of the Second Book (Shemot – Exodus) tell us about the tasks that the Сreator entrusted Moshe Rabbeinu with: building the Tabernacle, making the Ark of the Covenan, the Temple ware and the High Priest’s garments. In this book we also learn that Bezalel the son of Uri was chosen by God and given special wisdom and knowledge to carry out all the works including working with stones: “Becharoshet even lemalot” (31:5; 35:33). This is literally translated as: “skill, art (artisan’s work) of filling up a stone”. The Hebrew “charash” means a master, an artisan, while “charoshet” means industry. The sentence is generally translated into Russian as: “Carve stones for insertion”. In the dictionaries we find such expressions as: “charash nechoshet” -  a coopersmith; “charash etz” – a carpenter and “charash barzel” – a blacksmith. It would appear reasonable to suggest that “charash even” means a stone mason, however, it is usually translated as “a stone carver”. The word “carve” (on stone or wood) in Hebrew is “charat” חרת (The Hebrew – Russian Dictionary edited by B. Podolsky, T-A, 1992, p. 104), while a carver on stone is “chakak” חקק. Therefore, there is no mention of stone carving in the above-mentioned sentence. We can suggest the following understanding of the sentence: “In the mastery of filling with the stone”. Perhaps, it refers to an unknown to us technology of stone enhancement for the hoshen or artificial stones manufacturing. The interim conclusion: the Сreator had gifted Bezalel with the highest level of knowledge in the field of working with stones.  

  RASHI thus commented on the meaning of the expression “becharoshet”: “(it) means mastery or craft, in the same way as “charash – חרש” means a masterful craftsman...”
    We find the first mention of the hoshen stones in the chapter 25 of the Second Book that lists all the offerings necessary for making the High Priest’s garments: “shoham stones, and the miluim stones for the ephod and the hoshen” (vs. 7). In the chapter 35 it is written that the rulers (leaders, heads of tribes) “… brought shoham stones, and the miluim stones for the ephod and the hoshen” (vs. 25). The shoham stone is translated as onyx in all the Russian translations. In our earlier work “The Shoham Stone from the Land of Havilah, Part 3” we have proved that it is carnelian. However, now we are most interested in the expression “the miluim stones”. Here are just some examples of its translation:
  D. Yosifon: “the set-in stones”;
  P. Gil: “other inserted stones”;
  Edition of R. S.R. Girsh: “the stones for the mounting”;  
  F. Gurfinkel: “the mounting stones”;
 Torah Mi-Zion: “the set-in stones”;
 L. Mandelstam: “the stones for the mounting”;
 Synodal translation: “the set-in stones”.  

   RASHI referred to them as “the filling stones” as, in his opinion, they filled nests-settings (“mishbetzot”) specially made for them.  

   In dictionaries we find the following translations of the word “miluim – מלואים”: reserve military service, additions, supplements, stuffing, filler. However, there is also a word “miluah – מלואה” meaning the setting (for stones). Then the translation “the mounting stones, the stones for the mounting” makes sense.   

  Dr. Asher Shafrir notes that the word miluim rarely appears in the Tanach and is always used in plural meaning “male” –  מלאor “shalem” –  שלם(complete and whole respectfully). Then the expression “the miluim stones” means they filled the settings.

  But perhaps, it is much simpler: “… the shoham stones and the additional stones …”. There were eleven such stones on the breastplate of the High Priest. Three shoham stones: two on the ephod and one on the hoshen. More on this is in chapter 28 of the Book of Exodus. This chapter lists all the stones of the breastplate (vs. 17-20) starting with the instruction (vs. 17): “Vemileta bo meluat even …”
 
  D. Yosifon translates it: “And insert in it the set-in stones”;
  P. Gil: “And insert in it the mounted stones”;
  Edition of R. S.R. Girsh: “Strengthen the settings for the stones”; 
  F. Gurfinkel: “And insert in it the filling made of stones”;
 Torah Mi-Zion: “And fill it with the stone filling”;
 L. Mandelstam: “And you shall insert in it the stone setting”;
 Synodal translation: “And insert in it the mounted stones”;
 Dr. Uri Linetz in his commentary (2012) wrote: “And fill it with the filling of the stone”  
 
 The key words for understanding of the above-mentioned instruction are “mileta bo –בו מלאת”. Do they mean “insert in it” or “fill it”? This refers to the hoshen. Taking the expression “mileta bo” from the Torah text, we conducted a survey of some students and teachers in the town of Bnei Brak (Israel)  in order to see how they would understand this expression: inside or outside. The answer was unambiguous: inside, i.e. the stones should be placed INSIDE THE HOSHEN. It should be noted that all the respondents knew the Scriptures really well – they cited the continuation of the vs. 17 by heart.

    The next dilemma is how to translate the action: insert or fill?

    V. Dal (The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Russian Language, 1996) wrote: “… to insert something into something or somewhere … is to place inside, in the middle…” (Vol. 1, p. 270); to fill something with something is to replace the emptiness, to put inside, to become full…” (Vol. 2, p. 453).

    According to S.I. Ozhegov (The Russian Dictionary, M. 1986) “to fill something with somebody or something is to make full, occupied, saturated with something to the limit” (p. 331), while “to insert something into something is to place inside something” (p. 91).  

    In the list of synonyms for the words “fill” and “insert” there is one common word: “lay over”. The interim conclusion: “To insert in order to fill.

     To maintain the experimental integrity, we decided to check how the word “mileta” is translated in other verses. For example, in Exodus 28:41 it is written: “Vemileta et yadam”. It refers to the hands of the sons of Aaron the High Priest. Below are the translations of this expression:
  D. Yosifon: “and authorize them”;
  P. Gil: “and perform the rite of their initiation”;
  Edition of R. S.R. Girsh: “and authorize”; 
  F. Gurfinkel: “and grant them the authority”;
  Torah Mi-Zion: “and you shall fill their hands”;
  L. Mandelstam: “will authorize them (you shall fill their authority in the hand)”;
  Synodal translation: “and fill their hands”.  

  RASHI gives the following commentary: “… literally: fill their hands (grant them power and authority). This expression always means initiation, introduction (to an office). When appointing a person to a position of responsibility the ruler puts a glove in his hand … and by means of this action he grants him the authority…)”
  
   Conclusion: the literal translation of the word “mileta” both in vs. 17 and vs. 41 is “FILL”. Then the translation of the verses should be: “AND FILL IT (hoshen) WITH THE MOUNTED STONE”; “AND FILL THEIR HANDS...”
  For the sake of an illustration, let us present some examples of the translation of part of vs.17 into other languages. 
Translations into English:
"And thou shalt set in it settings of stones…"
"And thou shalt fill it…"
"And fill in it a filling of stone…"
"You will fill it with a filling of stone…"
" And fill in fillings of stones…"   The first example is most common.

   In German we would like to emphasize two versions. The first one belongs to Martin Luther (1545): "Und sollst es fullen  mit vier Riegen voll Steine". The second version is more contemporary: "Und besetze es  mit eingesetzten Steinen " or "…mit gefasten Edelsteinen". 

 Another example is in Italian: "Lo riempirai con  quattro file fi pietre". The word "riempirai" means "fill, fill out".      
 
    Chapter 39 of the Book of Exodus tells us about the work done by Moshe Rabbeinu and Bezalel. There are three versions of translation vs.10 into Russian: And inserted in it four raws of stones“; “On it they fastened the settings for the stones”; “And filled four rows of stones in it”. The last version is from the Torah Mi-Zion translators.   

   Despite the lack of unambiguity in the translations, there is still a group of researchers - translators of the Torah (who also function as its commentators), who agree that the stones were located, placed between the parts of the hoshen folded in two.  

   But let us go back to the contens of chapter 28 of the Book of Shemot (Exodus), which describes in great detail how to fasten the hoshen on the High Priest’s chest and which fittings should be made specifically for this purpose.

 14 and you shall make two chains of pure gold like braided cords, and fasten the braided chains to the [golden] settings.  
 22 “You shall make chains for the breastplate at the end, like braided cords of pure gold.
 23 And you shall make two rings of gold for the breastplate, and put the two rings on the two ends of the breastplate.
 24 Then you shall put the two braided chains of gold in the two rings which are on the ends of the breastplate;
 25 and the other two ends of the two braided chains you shall fasten to the two settings, and put them on the shoulder straps of the ephod in the front.
 26 “You shall make two rings of gold, and put them on the two ends of the breastplate, on the edge of it, which is on the inner side of the ephod.
 27 And two other rings of gold you shall make, and put them on the two shoulder straps, underneath the ephod toward its front, right at the seam above the intricately woven band of the ephod.
 28 They shall bind the breastplate by means of its rings to the rings of the ephod, using a blue cord, so that it is above the intricately woven band of the ephod, and so that the breastplate does not come loose from the ephod.
      
   Let us sum up the materials for the fastening: six golden rings, four  golden chains and a blue cord had to be made. The breastplate – hoshen, when unfolded, is rectangular in shape, its size being one cubit by half a cubit (a span). A ring is attached to each corner (four rings – four corners) and then the hoshen is folded in half (then there is a front part and the back part). The two remaining rings are attached to the corners of the fold.
    We proceed to the fastening. The two golden rings at the corners of the back part of the hoshen touching the chest of the High Priest are attached by two golden chains with the golden setting of the ephod stones on his shoulders. The two golden rings at the corners of the front part of the hoshen are attached by two golden rings to the shoulder straps of the ephod in the front. The two golden rings on the corners of the fold of the hoshen are used to attach the ephod with the blue cord “so it wouldn’t fall down”.  

    Thus, the back part of the hoshen was rigidly fastened at the top by a golden chain running from the golden setting of the efod stones to the golden rings at the corners of this part of the hoshen, and at the bottom it was fastened by the blue cord. The front part of the hoshen, already fixed at the bottom, was flexible at the top. The two chains, coming from the golden rings of this part, were, most likely, fastened by a hook in the front of the ephod. Such a fastening created all the necessary conditions for opening the hoshen before the communication session and closing it back upon its completion.  

    The main conclusion: THE HOSHEN STONES HAD BEEN HIDDEN FROM THE EYES OF THE STRANGERS. THE HIGH PRIEST (directly) AND THE KING STANDING BEHIND HIM (over the Cohen’s shoulder) COULD SEE THE STONES AT THE MOMENT OF COMMUNICATION WITH THE CREATER.

     1. Our analysis of the Torah text regarding the stones placement in the hoshen and its fastening to the efod on the chest of the High Priest confirmed all the assumptions made by the researchers who were the first ones to propose that the hoshen stones had been located on the inner surface of the outer part of the hoshen.
      2.  It makes sense that when the hoshen was opened, the writings on the stones (the names of the tribes) would appear from right to left and the first stone was located at the top right corner of the inner surface of the outer part of the hoshen. “The letters glowed before the High Priest’s face”. 
     3. Upon completing his communication with the Сreator, the High Priest would close the hoshen fixing the chains on the front part of the ephod. Thus, the stones would be hidden from all other people praying at the Temple.  
     4. Should a hoshen made nowadays, for example at the Temple Institute, be turned inside out then the stones would be inside the hoshen filling it out.
     5. It remains a mystery, which stones were on the hoshen, as well as the very process of the “art, skill of filling out the stone”.
     6. Some information to consider: in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and ancient Greece GLASS WAS CONSIEDERED TO BE A STONE.  

   In "Real Encyclopaedia der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft in alphabetischer Ordnung" (1852, стр.2691), section "Vitrum" we see that the ancient Greeks called glass "litos chute" - "gegossener  Stein" -  "cast stone", an expression clearly borrowed from the ancient Egyptian language. The Greek word "ualos" also denoting glass had appeared much later.

   Ancient Egyptians called glass melt (Glasfluss) “inr n wdh” or “`З.t  wdh”, where ‘inr’ and “`З.t” denoted Stein - stone, and “wdh” denoted giessen – "pour"  or schmelzen (Metall) –"cast". The word "thn.t” appears in later texts and means "Glas" –glass. It derives from the word "thn " – glaenzen – shine. The blue glass in the style of lapis lazuli was called “hsbd wdhw”.

   The term “cover with glass” – mit Glas uberziehen in ancient Egyptian was “mrh”. By comparison, the verb “to smear, to cover" is in Hebrew  - “mrh” -   -  מרח marakh. In Egyptian the word Fullung – filling is “mhw”, the same word in Hebrew is milui - מלוי. The word “oven” in Hebrew is tanur – תנור, while in Egyptian it is “thr”. (For more details, see " Worterbuch der Aegypitschen Sprache ,Berlin, 1971).

   The primary meaning of the word denoting “glass” in Akkadian is "a stone from the oven" – “abne sha kuri”, where “abne” means stone similar to the Hebrew “even”, while “kuru” is "kiln, furnace". The expression "uqnu sha kuri" means a blue-colored glass, the word “uqnu” is lapis lazuli and the literal translation would be "lapis lazuli from a casting furnace" and "uqnu sha shadi" means "lapis lazuli from the mountains" (see Reallexikon der Assyrologie, section "Glas", Glasuren ").

   The Hebrew word “kur” – “כור means furnace, while in the Book of Job 28^17 we find the word denoting glass and not appearing in the Torah: “zekukit”  – “זכוכית”, and it is most likely borrowed from the Akkadian “zuku” – glass.  

   By the time of the Jewish Exodus the glassmaking had been quite developed in Egypt, its primary purpose being manufacturing “precious stones”. The Pharaohs personally supervised the production and often used glass as embellishment. The glass was even habitually called “stones”. 

    The special attention that the Torah pays to the shoham stone (“the land of Havilah … and the shoham stone” and “the shoham stone and the miluim stones”) may be regarded as an indication of its natural origin and the value.



      Translated from Russian by Yulia  Mestechkin,   8.09.2017